Benchmarking 21 Open-Source Large Language Models for Phishing Link Detection with Prompt Engineering

Nasution, Arbi Haza and Monika, Winda and Onan, Aytug and Murakami, Yohei (2025) Benchmarking 21 Open-Source Large Language Models for Phishing Link Detection with Prompt Engineering. Information, 16 (5). pp. 1-26. ISSN 2078-2489

Text J1_information-16-00366.pdf - Published Version Download (1MB)

Abstract

Phishing URL detection is critical due to the severe cybersecurity threats posed by phishing attacks. While traditional methods rely heavily on handcrafted features and supervised machine learning, recent advances in large language models (LLMs) provide promising alternatives. This paper presents a comprehensive benchmarking study of 21 state-of-the-art open-source LLMs—including Llama3, Gemma, Qwen, Phi, DeepSeek, and Mistral—for phishing URL detection. We evaluate four key prompt engineering techniques—zero-shot, role-playing, chain-of-thought, and few-shot prompting—using a balanced, publicly available phishing URL dataset, with no fine-tuning or additional training of the models conducted, reinforcing the zero-shot, prompt-based nature as a distinctive aspect of our study. The results demonstrate that large open-source LLMs (≥27B parameters) achieve performance exceeding 90% F1-score without fine-tuning, closely matching proprietary models. Among the prompt strategies, few-shot prompting consistently delivers the highest accuracy (91.24% F1 with Llama3.3_70b), whereas chain- of-thought significantly lowers accuracy and increases inference time. Additionally, our analysis highlights smaller models (7B–27B parameters) offering strong performance with substantially reduced computational costs. This study underscores the practical potential of open-source LLMs for phishing detection and provides insights for effective prompt engineering in cybersecurity applications.

Actions (login required)

View Item